RUSSIA, TURKEY, AND ENGLAND, OR THE EASTERN QUESTION.

Globe, Volume VIII, Issue 1007, 17 September 1877, Page 3

RUSSIA, TURKEY, AND ENGLAND, OR THE EASTERN QUESTION.

[from the press.] From the Peace of Carlowitz to the Treaty of Kainardji. If there were any binding force in treaties, Turkey might now look forward to twentyfive years of peace—that being the period for which terms had been made with Austria; while her peace with Russia was for thirty years. But Peter the Great had never any intention of maintaining his pacific attitude, except so far as it suited his convenience. He continued to strengthen Azof, his newly acquired tort in the Crimean portion of the Ottoman dominion ; and built another strong fortress, Taganrog, in the territory which he had acquired by the peace of Carlowitz. His preparations were regarded as a menace to Constantinople, and the Sultan built a new fortress, Yeni-Kale, opposite to Kertch, the guns of which being depressed to the level of the water, would command the Straits of that name. The new Sultan, Achmet, 1703, complained to the Czar of the warlike preparations on his part, and declared that no reliance could be placed in the promises of Russia. Every year Turkey sent a fleet to cruise in the Black Sea, to observe the progress which Russia’s armament was making. But her arms were at present too busily occupied in her contest with Charles ATI. of Sweden, to allow' hey to renew the war with T urkey; so a precarious peace was maintained until after the defeat of Charles XII. at Pultowa. Charles fled to Turkey, and found a refuge on Ottoman territory. The Sultan refused the request of the Czar that Charles should not be permitted to remain in the Turkish dominion ; and sent some regiments for his protection. Russian soldiers violated the neutrality of Turkish territory by seizing some ol the Swedish soldiers of Charles; and this violation roused the spirit of Turkey. Ultimately war was declared in November, 1710, between the two Powers. In the short campaign which followed—lasting scarcely eight months—Russia was out-generalled, and compelled to accept humiliating terms of peace at the treaty of Pruth, 1711. Peter began the war “ In the name of God and for the cause of Christianity.” These words were inscribed on one side of the standard borne by his soldiers, while on the other was a cross and the inscription of the Greek Emperors in Greek characters “ with this conquer.” In fact he endeavoured to give the war, which was solemnly proclaimed in the principal church in Moscow', the character of a crusade. He w r as however completely out-generalled and unable to break through the lines of the Turkish army by which he was surrounded. In this strait, Catherine, his wife, came forward and saved the army. Collecting all her jewellery, and the valuables of the officers of the army, she sent them as a present to the Vizier, and sued for peace. Peace was granted on terms that were extremely unpalatable to Russia. Azof had to be restored to Turkey in good condition; Taganrog and other new forts wore to bo destroyed ; Russia was no longer to interfere in the affairs of Poland ; no Russian ambassador was to reside at Constantinople. These were among the principal conditions of the treaty of Pruth ; on signing which Peter and Ins army were released from the trap in which they had been ensnared. Of com’se the treaty was not kept; and several times war was imminent, had not the English and Dutch ambassadors mediated. In 1714, three years after the signing of the treaty, Azof was restored to Turkey, and Taganrog was demolished. But it does not appear that [Russia ever from that date ceased to interfere in the affairs of Poland. After t&e the two powers acted as allies against

Persia, and even made a treaty of eternal amity. Yet the treaty of eternal amity did not hinder Peter from making preparation to renew his attacks upon Ottoman territory, tfe had prepared vast supplies for his Turkish campaign, before his death in 1727. Anne on her accession as Czarina, continued those preparations, but delayed making war for a time. She was busy in the affairs of Poland ; but so soon as the affairs of that country were off her hands, Anne turned her attention to the long prepared-for Turkish campaign. General Miinnich, in 1736,arrived suddenly within eight miles of Azof. As there had been no declaration of war on the part of either power, the Turkish officer in command of Azof, sent a message of congratulation to Miinnich on his arrival, expressing his confidence in the pacific intentions of the Russian general. His confidence was rudely disturbed by the seizure of two of the out-posts of Azof before the Turkish general was aware of the attack. Miinnich, leaving another officer to invest Azof, pushed on with nearly 60,000 soldiers to invade the Crimea, which was defended on the landward side by the celebrated lines of Perekop. The isthmus which connects the Crimea with the mainland is about five miles wide, at its narrowest point. It is here defended by a deep cutting, twenty-live feet deep, and thirty-six feet wide, running right across the neck. Behind this deep trench, which can be Hooded with water, is a stone rampart seventy feet in height from the bottom of the ditch. This line of defence was strengthened by towers, and the fortress of Perekop. The position was believed to be impregnable, but it was carried by a skilful manoeuvre by Miinnich, although defended by 100,000 Tartars. The peninsula was now ravaged by the Muscovite army, towns, cities, and villages being destroyed without mercy, although the invading army suffered dreadfully, as it deserved to suffer ; for the whole campaign, undertaken without any declaration of war, was marked by atrocious cruelty and the most savage spirit of devastation. “Nomercy was shown by the Russians to either age er sex. Towns and villages were fired, and their inhabitants slaughtered, even when no resistance was offered to Russian troops. The monuments of antiquity were wantonly defaced, libraries and schools were given to the flames, and public buildings and places of worship were purposely and deliberately destroyed.” This campaign ended disastrously for Turkey. In the following year Austria joined Russia for the next campaign, after some negociations, which were intended to

put Turkey off her guard so that Austria might receive some such advantage as Munuich had obtained in the first year through taking Turkey unawares. The ncgociation of Nimirof came to nought, and the war was continued with Russia in the East and Austria in the West. While Turkey continued to be unsuccessful in her contest with the former power, she obtained many successes in her Austrian campaign. Russia now devised the idea of raising the Christian population of Turkey, and of conquering her by the means of jthe Rayas. The “ oriental project ” was elaborated byMunnich, and the Czarina Anne confidently expected to obtain possession of Constantinople. Every preparation was made for the final campaign, when the reverses of Austria spoiled all. The latter power was compelled to sue for peace, in which she stipulated that Russia should be included, and thus came about the peace of Belgrade in 1739—a peace which was, on the whole, considering her many reverses, not unfavorable to Turkey. In this short war the Crimea was ravaged three separate times by Russian armies.

For nearly thirty years there was peace between the two countries, although Russian intrigue continued in Georgia, Montenegro, and the Crimea. Her conduct, in which Prussia shared, towards Poland, was opposed by the Porto. But Turkish remonstrances were eluded by shallow excuses, which led at last to the Sultan and Grand Vizier feeling that they were regarded by the two powers as either dupes or fools. Von Hammer, the best historian of Turkish affairs, says “ the exchange of notes between the Turkish Prussian and Russian Ministers on the affairs of Poland till January 1768 is a singular proof of the simplicity of the Ottoman diplomacy, and of the duplicity of that of Russia and Prussia at this epoch. The Turkish Government through their interpreters continued from lime to time to put the most pressing questions to. the Ministers of these Courts, seeking f< r an explanation of the deeds of violence which were taking place in Poland. The Russian Resident always pretended that he heard nothing of such events, or declared that these were merely measures for the protection of the republic, and for the maintenance of solemn engagements.” In addition to this, Turkey had proofs of the action of Russian intrigue in those portions of her territory mentioned above. So war was declared in 1768 for the purpose of assisting unhappy Poland, and delivering her from the armies of her great adversary. This war was the most unfortunate that Turkey waged with her traditional enemy. It lasted for six years, and during the whole of that time scarcely a gleam of success was granted to Ottoman arms. The Turkish armies were badly officered; those of Russia were commanded by such men as Munnich and Suwarrow. The Crimea, after one failure, was captured by the Czarina’s troops, aud at Kozlidji the latter General defeated the Turkish Grand Vizier with great loss, who gladly sued for peace, accepting the heavy and ignominious terms imposed at Kainardji. Both sides were anxious for the termination of the war; Russia, among other reasons, because Poland had to be partitioned, and Russian troops were needed to coerce that ill-fated country. The peace of Kainardji was most disastrous to Turkey, and from this treaty have come many of her subsequent misfortunes. Among its provisions were the following : —Tiic independence of the Crimea of the Ottoman Sultan ; the residence of a Russian ambassador in every portion of Turkey ; and the right of making representations on behalf of her Christian subjects. For such was the construction put upon clause 7 by Prince Mensehikoff. Such were some of the provisions of the famous treaty of Kainardji, the signatures to which were delayed until the 21st July, the anniversary of the treaty of Pruth, the disgrace of which was, it was felt, wiped out by the treaty of 1774.