RUSSIA, TURKEY, AND ENGLAND; OR, THE EASTERN QUESTION.

Globe, Volume VIII, Issue 1001, 10 September 1877, Page 2

RUSSIA, TURKEY, AND ENGLAND; OR, THE EASTERN QUESTION.

FEOM IVAN THE TEEEIBIE TO THE PEACE OP CAEIOWXTZ. The hundred years* peace between Russia and Turkey was disturbed only by mutual reprisals between the unruly vassals of each power—Cossack and Tartar. The Czar in a letter to the Sultan termed his Cossacks “ a horde of malefactors who had withdrawn ” themselves beyond the reach of punishment due for their misdeeds. The Sultan probably excused his inability to control the Tartars of the Crimea in similar terms. During this border warfare the only affair of importance was the recapture of Azof, which had been taken by the Cossacks, but which was reoccupied by the .Tartars in 1642. In 1673 war began between Russia and Turkey, which lasted with scarcely any intermission till the end of the century. Before narrating any details of this long campaign, it will be well to glance at the battle of St. Gothard in 1664, fought between the Ottomans on the one side and Austria and Hungary, assisted by several thousand French soldiers, on the other. The importance of this battle is that it was on the field of St. Gothard that European soldiers first learnt that Ottoman arms were not invincible; but that well armed and well officered European troops were a match for the all-conquering Turk. The allied forces were under the command of Count Montecuculi, Count of Coligny, and Prince Charles of Lorraine ; all experienced generals. The Turks were commanded by Ahmed Kiuprili, who, tho ugh highly successful in the administration of civil affairs, was not born to be a general. When he saw the French coming on with their clean shaven chins, he asked contemptuously “ who are young girls ?” But the young girls, fearless of the terrible battle-cry of the Turk, “Allah, Allah,” responded “Aliens, Aliens, Tuc, Tue,” and rushed upon the hitherto invincible Janissaries. One old Austrian general, Spork, prayed bareheaded at the head of his cavalry, “Oh, Mighty Generalissimo, who art on high, if thou wilt not this day help thy children, the Christians, at least da not help these dogs the Turks, and thou shall, soon see something that will please thee-''’ The Turks were defeated with the loss, of 10,000 men, and the Christians of Western Europe expressed their sense of the greatness of tho victory by building a chape) 0 n the spot; and ceased to fear the Ottorr t an arms. The immediate occasion of the -war with Russia was a rising of the Cos? ,acks of the Ukraine. They being dissat’ t 3fied, transferred their allegiance bo) dly to the Sultan of Turkey; and tb eir leader was appointed Bey of Ukraine., and received a banner with two horse teals. Poland and Russia immediately remonstrated, and war was the result. In Polr.nd the Turks were successful in the firf.t campaign, taking Kaminiec and Lemberg. The King of Poland gladly concluded an ignominious treaty, which however was set nside by John Sobieski and other Polish noblemen, who continued (lie war, and obtained several successes. But after four years* campaigning the Ottomans were able to bring the war to a most favorable conclusion as against Poland. Russia however continued the war on her own account, and at last obtained tho disputed territory, the vassalage of tho Cossacks, and tho neutralisation of that territory which lay between the Rivers Boug and Dniester. Neutralisation of territory is Russia’s usual preliminary to annexation. The peace made on these terms lasted for little better than a year. For Turkey, who had an insatiable craving for the possession of Vienna, in the next year, 1682, fitted out a ■nagnificent expedition to capture that city. Vienna, which -was but poorly garrisoned in point of numbers, was succoured by Job*'

Sobieski, now King of Poland, who with 20,000 men advanced to its relief. When he reached the heights of Kalemberg a magnificent scene lay before him, which is thus described :—“ From this hill the Christians were presented with one of the finest and most dreadful prospects of the greatness of human power; an immense plain, and all the islands of the Danube covered with pavilions whose magnificence seemed rather calculated for an encampment of pleasure than the hardships of war ; an innumerable multitude of horses, camels, and buffaloes ; 2,000,000 of men all in motion, swarms of Tartars dispersed along the foot of the mountain in their usual confusion ; the fire of the besiegers incessant and terrible, and that of the besieged such as they could contrive to make ; in fine, a great city, distinguishable only by the tops of the steeples and the fire and smoke that covered it.”

Sobieski exclaimed —“The army is badly encamped ; this man (Kara Mustapha) knows nothing of war. We shall certainly beat him;” and the event fell out as he anticipated, The immense force was utterly vanquished, and all the rich spoil of the large armament fell into Sobieski’s hands. This crushing defeat sustained by the Turks before the walls of Yienna raised the wildest expectations throughout Europe. The expulsion of the Turk from_ Europe was now confidently expected. Russia immediately declared war, although her signature to the last peace was hardly dry. Venice did the same. The Turks were driven back beyond the Danube, and lost numerous cities and towns. It was in vain that Turkey sent army after army to turn back the tide of victory ; with but few exceptions the progress of the Christian armies in the West was one of victory. Russia, however, in the East was not successful. The successive attacks upon the Perekop, of the Crimea, failed, and the Turks gained some successes against the Muscovite —of whom they had an instinctive fear. But success in this direction was more than counterbalanced by losses in the West and South. Austria, under able leaders, won everything before her. Turkey, however, obtained some respite, while Kiuprili-Z add-Mustapha—another of the celebrated Kiuprili family—was Grand Yizier. Unfortunately for her he occupied that position for only two years, and then at his death reverses again overwhelmed the Ottoman arms. Towards the close of the century another spirit began to make itself felt within the sphere of the political world. This was Peter the Great of Russia. He had drawn around him skilled men from Western Europe, and had reorganised the Russian army, and had taught “ barbarous Muscovy” how to use her vast strength. Besides tins he conceived a policy, which has ever since been followed by his successors. He saw that possession of the Black Sea was absolutely necessary to Russia’s becoming a great European power, and he therefore took the first steps to obtain supremacy there. Whether the so-called will of Peter the Great is authentic or not, this much is at least evident: that on the assumption that it is a forgery, the forger has by a study of the past history of Russia, shrewdly forecast that which has become her traditional policy — possession of the Black Sea and Constantinople in the South —extension of Russian dominion in the East, in Asia, In 1695, while William 111 reigned in England, Peter the Great marched an army of 60,000 men to the attack of Azof, on the sea of that name. He was defeated with great loss, the loss of 30,000 men. Next year he again returned to the attack, and this time succeeded. Azof became a Russian fort. Peter at once showed what use he intended to make of this post by improving the fortification and fitting out ships of war in the sea of Azof. It was evident that Constantinople was his destination. More than a century and a half have elapsed how« ever, and still Constantinople flies the green fiag of Moslem, and St. Sophia is still a Mabomedan mosque. At this threatening state of affairs England appeared upon the scene, in the person of Lord Paget, her Ambassador at Constantinople, and began to mediate for peace between the contending Powers. Austria, who was now entirely free from the foot of the invader, was anxious for peace, so too was Poland —not so was Russia, but she could not continue the war against Turkey single-handed, Peter, on visiting the Austrian Court and learning that England and Holland were parties to the mediation, exclaimed, “ Beware how you trust to what the Dutch and English say. They are looking only to the benefit of their commerce. They care nothing about the interests of their allies.” In the end, however, the mediation was successful, and the plenipotentiaries of Turkey, Austria, Poland, Yeniee, and Russia, with those of England and Holland, met at Carlovitz, on the Danube, in October, 1698. Here, after much difficulty, a treaty of peace was concluded with Turkey and the three first-named powers ; while Russia would agree to nothing beyond an armistice for two years. This was ultimately turned into a treaty of peace for thirty years. The treaty of Carlovitz was the first occasion on which Ottoman and Muscovite took part in a general European Congress. And it is otherwise remarkable, as from the date of that treaty Turkey ceased to be feared in Europe. Her importance was henceforth diplomatic. “ Other nations have from time to time sought to use her as a political machine against Austria, or the growing power of Russia, and this diplomatic importance of Turkey has grown proportionately greater as the sovereigns of Russia become desirous of possessing the Black Sea for the carrying out of them plans.” This peace of 1699 marks the first great step in the decline of the Ottoman power. In the seventeenth century all the principal powers of Europe w'ero arrayed in arms against her—Austria, Russia, Hungary, Poland, Yeniee, Franco (in the person of her auxiliaries). In the eighteenth Russia and Austria were her chief assailants ; while in the nineteenth (the present) century Russia alone is her antagonist. These facts roughly indicate the periods and extent of the Ottoman decline.