RURAL INDUSTRIES

Evening Star, Issue 22446, 17 September 1936, Page 7

RURAL INDUSTRIES

DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE’S YEAR EFFICIENCY GHATIFYIHOLY HIGH HEAVY DAIRY PRODUCTION The report of the Director-General of Agriculture /was presented to Parliament last night. Two features of the year recorded as i worthy of special mention are: — 1. There was a substantial increase of: 38,309 tons in the deliveries of fertilisers by rail. In the light of departmental investigations and experience) relative to the use of fertilisers, this trend augurs well for future farm production. 2. There was a substantial increase in the killings of pigs for export. At the close ot the production year ending September the increase in comparison with the previous year promises to approximate 120,000 carcasses. Further profitable expansion of pig production is clearly in sight, and the department is planning to foster such profitable expansion to the fullest possible extent. Mr Cockayne reports:—• •

Despite a markedly abnormal season over wide areas, in the Dominion, farm production during .the 1935-36 season has been most gratifying in that, in general, there has been a return to the high standard attained in the 1933-34 season. This is reflected in increases' in ' the production of such major lines as butter-fat, mutton, cereals, pork and bacon, while lamb killings for export for the first nine months of the production year ending September 30 are approximately equal to those of the corresponding period of the previous season. Further, in general the improved market position for the major exportable surpluses of farm produce has been reflected in appreciated prices, this being especially marked in respect of wool. The joint effect of the maintenance of a hignly satisfactory standard of production and of appreciated prices is partly to be seen in the fact that during the first five months of the current calendar year exports of merchandise have exceeded commodity imports in value by £13,583,065. as compared with £9,520,197 during the same months of 1935. The weather varied greatly throughout the Dominion, and departures ’from normal conditions influenced production substantially. An outstanding feature in many districts was an unusually wet and consequently backward winter and spring. One result was a decline in dairy production during the early part of the season, the butter-fat production up to the end of November being over 170,000 cwt less than in the corresponding period of the previous season. Another, and quite general, outstanding feature was the wet summer. One striking result was exceptionally heavy dairy production; the decrease of over .170,OOOcwt at the end of November had been turned into an increase of nearly 140,OOOcwt of butter-fat at the end of March 'in comparison with corresponding periods of the previous season., In short, from- December to March the amount of butter-fat i produced in 1935-36 season was approximately 35,000,0001 b more than in the 1934-35 season, and as a result the returns of the dairy farmers were approximately £2,000,000 greater. Incidentally, herein is provided a striking concrete illustration of how materially adequate summer feeding influences production and returns in aairying. The essential difference between the two seasons, was in respect to the summer feed supply, and, as usual, this difference was felt more acutely in February; ■ the 1936 February dairy produce gradings were greater than those of 1935 by the equivalent of over 90,OOOcwt of butter-fat, of a value of roughly £500,000 —surely a handsome return for one month for more efficient feeding. The wet, cold spring followed by a summer of unusually abundant rainfall had a material influence also on fat lamb production. This is indicated bv the fact that while the number of lambs killed for export for the five months ending February, 1936, was almost 600.000 less than the number for the same period of the previous : season, yet the corresponding numbers for the nine months ending June 30 are practically equal, being 8,766,757 in 1936 in comparison with 8,782,242 in 1935. Proportionately, the killings of sheep are essentially similar. In those districts which experienced the type of season under consideration, it was difficult to achieve proper control of pasture growth, and for the exceptional conditions obtaining manv farms were understocked. Despite the abundance of summer feed, the reserves of hay and silage built up were not all exceptionally heavy. In the first place, the broken summer weather did not favour successful hay making, and, further, farmers being faced all along with the r possibility, indeed the probability, of a dry spell during which the plentiful supply of pasture growth would be needed, and being unable to foretell the season, played for safety by keeping plenty of feed at hand on the pastures. The unusual abundance of feed in the fall of the year may have after effects which warrant the consideration of sheep farmers. In the first place, the conditions favoured the development of parasitic troubles, the control of which calls . for special measures to which public attention has been directed bv departmental officers; in the second place, because of the abundance of feed, many farmers are anxious about the. over-fat condition of their ewes, which often is associated with trouble at lambing. In the main grain-growing area, the South Island, the season was not variable; while the winter was practically normal, conditions through the growing season were good, and though final figures are not yet available the position is advanced enough to indicate that relatively heavy yields have been produced FEATURES OF THE YEAR. Included among the outstanding features of the farming industry for the year are:— 1. An increase of 4.283 per cent, in the production of butter-fat for the 11 months ending June, 1936. as compared with the corresponding period of the 1934-35 season, and the probability that the production for the complete season ending July 31 will be only about 0.8 per cent. less than the record production attained in the 1933-34 season. This increase in total production is associated with an increase in. the average butter-fat production of all dairy cows, which, jn its turn, is correlated with the bet-

ter feeding, resulting mainly from the more abundant pasture growth in the latter half of the season. 2. Sales of wool have been record ones in respect of quantity, and have been characterised by solidity of demand and regularity of price, the fluctuations in prices from first to last being small indeed. It is of some moment that the quantity disposed of included a considerable amount of wool carried over—it is estimated that 49,400 bales of wool are being carried over from the 1933-30 season, whereas 286,679 bales wore carried, over from the 1934-35 season. As a joint result o‘f increased quantity and improved price, the gross value of the wool sold in 1935-36 was £10,083,297 in comparison with £4,486,480 in the 1934-35 season.

3. A substantial increase took place in the number of carcasses of pigs killed for export, 662,754 being killed during the nine months to June 30, 1936, in comparison with 566,459 in the corresponding period ’ of the previous season. The increase in the weight of pig meat for export is greater than the above figures suggest, this being due to the fact that baconers constitute over 70 per, cent, of the increase in number. 4. There was au increase in the killings of wether mutton for export from 940,401 in the nine months ended June 30, 1935,. to 1.143,311 in the corresponding period of 1936. 5. A decrease took place in the killings of ewe mutton for export from 1.179.092 in nine months ended June 30. 1935, to 735.962 in the corresponding period ended June 30. 1936. These killings confirm impressions. obtained from autumn sheep sales in indicating that the breeding ewe numbers have been built up by retaining in the flocks ewes that normally in the past would be slaughtered on account of a ”6.' A relatively large increase took place in the killings for chilled beef, which, however, continue small in comparison with other quantities of meat exported, the figures being 119,653 quarters for nine months ended June 30, 1936. compared with 49,297 quarters for. the corresponding period of the previous season. 7. An increase occurred in the quantities of apples and pears exported to 1,228,286 cases in the 1936 export season from 1,003,420 cases in the 1935 season. 8. There was a substantial increase in the wheat crop. Tip to the end of May 82 per cent, of the total estimated area had been threshed for a total yield of 7,619.126 bushels, this giving an average yield af 38J bushels an acre, the corresponding figures for the previous season being 5,410.857 bushels and 27 bushels. As a result of flood damage, part of the iinthreshed area may reduce the average figures. 9. A substantial increase has been recorded in the oat crop: up to the end of Mav. 1936. the total threshed was 3.227.525 bushels, giving nn average of 47.7 bushels an acre, the corresponding fimires of the previous season being 1.847.390 bushels and 38.68 bushels. . 10. Increased deliveries of fertilisers by rail were made for the Dominion as well as for each island separately, the Dominion total being 664.. 330 tons for the year ended March 31, 1936, nn increase of 33.309 tons in comparison with the previous corresponding year. 11 Record deliveries of lime by rail were made for the Dominion, these, however, involving a decrease of 9.610 tons in North Island deliveries and nn increase of 11.130 tons in South Island deliveries for the vear ended March 31. 1936, in comparison wifh the corresponding previous year. 12. An increase tool- place in the honev exnorted to 10.446 cases valued at. £34.258 for the year ended March 31. 1936. in oonmnrison with 5.427 eases valued at £1 1 .844 in the corresponding previous year; INCREASED EFFICIENCY. . In the reports of the two immediately preceding years certain trends towards increased efficiency which were , then evident were noted, and from the foregoing it seems clear that the effects of some of these trends are already reflected in our fanning. It is noteworthy also that growing attention continues to be given to some of the major matters bearing on our farming efficiency. . . One of these matters is the use ot fertilisers. Investigation of the economic role of fertilisers has continued, and has yielded evidence confirming that previously obtained, extending its application and indicating that in many parts of the Dominion there is economic justification for increased use of fertilisers on . the basis of current returns and costs in farming. Hence the trend towards increased use of fertilisers as indicated in the increased quantities ot fertilisers carried by rail for the year ended March 31 is well warranted and indicative of improved farm practice. As is so advisable, the development of pig-keeping as nn auxiliary to butterfat production continues to receive increasing attention. The rise, during recent years, of pig products as an important item in the export trade has been somewhat phenomenal. In 1924 the killings for export numbered slightly fewer than 5,000 carcasses; 12 years later, in nine months of the 1935-36 season, they have exceeded 660,000 carcasses, and seem likely to approximate 710,000 carcasses for the complete producing season ending September, 1936. Assuming export prices of pig products remain constant at about the current level, further substantial increases in production are economically sound, and seem extremely probable. This may be attributed to the fact that more and more farmers are realising that it is quite a normal performance to produce 40lb of pig meat (dressed weight) for every 1001 b of butterfat produced, and that such a production of pig meat often may be secured . without any substantial additional outlay in equipment and material. The possibility of further economic ■ expansion in pig production gives rise to a pressing need for activity in various directions, and this activity is being undertaken or contemplated by this department. In the first place, it is important to bear in mind that much profitable expansion could be based simply on freer application of our present knowledge. This points to the need for a more extensive advisory service. In the second place, further expansion probably will make certain current problems of greater moment or create .new problems. Hence, there is urgent need for investigation relative to certain matters so as to he the better able to deal with the problems of the future. Among the matters which promise to be prolific of future problems, which are now receiving attention, and which warrant continued and increased attention, are: (1) The more effective use of dairy by-products which is likely to develop along the line of increased exploitation of pastures, pasture equivalents. and grain crops in pig keeping ; (2) the production of carcasses of the weight and type best suited to the needs of the market—this is likely to involve an intensification of the swingover to the production of baconers. which is already taking place; (3) the prevention in preference to the cure of diseases and disorders, wliieh, judging from the history of live-stock ventures, is likely to become a more acute problem as our pig population becomes more

dense; (4) the evolution of strains of pigs in which good carcass type is associated with economical conversion of feed into flesh under the conditions of feeding and accommodation which it is economic to provide in the Dominion. In zeal and enthusiasm about the future development of our pig keeping there seems at times to be an inclination to overlook the outstanding feature of the position—this is, the immense and profitable scope for expansion there is along the line of better exploitation of the foundation material we already possess, both in the better strains of our pigs and in our knowledge, which, though imperfect, in some respects is nevertheless considerable. THE DAIRYING POSITION. A more buoyant condition has marked dairy affairs generally, and this practically from the opening months of the 1935-36 producing season. The stocks of butter in cold storage in Great Britain have been low. This has been due primarily to reduced production rather than to increased consumption, and the consumption of imported butter by Britain has remained steady. The prices obtained for butter have advanced appreciably. The year 1935 was marked by a decrease of 14,000 tons in the imports of cheese by the United Kingdom, this being due mainly to substantial falling off in the New Zealand supplies, but the Canadian supplies, which have been declining steady for several years, continued to decline. Apparently, in the main because of the change in the supply position, the New Zealand returns from cheese advanced. The figures for 11 months ended June, 1936, of the current dairying season indicate that there is an increase of 4.283 per cent, in butterfat production in comparison with the corresponding period of the 1934-35 season, and the trend in seasonal yield points to a production for the complete season ending July that will be within approximately 0.8 per cent, of the record production of the 1933-34 season. For the 11 months ended June, 1936, the salted butter graded was 138,054 tons, and the unsalted 6,713 tons, a total of 144,767 tons, compared with 129,007 tons, 4,942 tons, and 133,949 tons respectively for the corresponding period of the previous season; an increase of 8.08 per cent. The quantity of cheese graded for the 11 months ended June, 1936, were: White, 58,041 tons; coloured, 27,156 tons; a total of 85,917 tons, compared with white, 63,300 tons; coloured, 28,953 tons; a total of 92,253 tons for the corresponding period of the previous season; a decrease of 7.65 per cent. The increase in the production of butterfat proportionately is substantially greater than the increase in the number of dairy cows. Hence the year was marked by an increase in the average butterfat production of all dairy cows in comparison with the previous year, when the average was 2101 b, but it is estimated, in the absence of definite data, that the average butterfat production of all dairy cows for the 1935-36 season will be approximately 2181 b; that of 1933-34 was 220.81 b. The tendency during recent years has been towards a greater proportion of the dairy production taking place in the early part of the season, and it seems that had the 1935-36 season been a normal one this tendency would have continued. Although the production for the first four months to the end of November was substantially less than that of the corresponding periods of the 1933-34 and 1934-35 seasons, the August production was appreciably higher than in’either of the two immediately preceding seasons. Later the adverse spring weather caused a substantial decline, which, however, was more than counterbalanced by the abnormally heavy production in the latter part of the summer. The exceptionally wet summer resulted in abundance of feed, which gave the unusually heavy summer production of butterfat. In short, feed supply was the governing factor in the 1935-36 dairy production, a fact which should serve to drive home the importance both of good feeding and the measures entailed in good economic feeding in onr dairying economy. The quality of dairy produce has been well maintained. An increase in the proportion of cream delivered daily in conjunction with considerable improvement in dairy buildings, both on the farms and at the factories, has contributed towards improving or maintaining quality in the creamery butter, complaints regarding certain butter containers have been given attention with a view to remedying the position. In cheese manufacture several matters, particularly in respect of storage and handling, that affect quality have been receiving close attention, and the average quality of the cheese lias approximated that of the previous season. It is realised that there is still scope for improvement in the quality of some of our dairy produce, and prospective means of bringing about improvement continue to receive consideration. The standards set by the Dairy Division for the grading of cream are being followed fairly closely, and it is considered generally that cream grading in conjunction with increased daily delivery has appreciably lessened the quantity of cream of inferior quality. Likewise in cheese production the grading of milk with differential payments according to grade is recognised of assistance in obtaining a better supply of milk. In the calendar year 1935 there was a marked falling-off in the number of certificates issued in respect of the work of certificate-of-record testing. The number of certificates issued was 723, whereas 892 were issued in the previous year; in 1935 there was a slight decline in the average butter-fat production relative to these certificates. In comparison with the previous year there were declines also, both in the number of cows tested under Government official herd testing and in that under ordinary herd testing—in the latter the decline amounted to 31,703 cows.

During the year the organisation of group herd testing was remodelled. The previous control by a voluntary nonstatury body was discontinued, and the Dairy Board was given power to control group herd testing and associated work. During the year herd testing was assisted by a Government subsidy of £4,000. While the position in the dairy industry as a whole is particularly satisfactory, especially when one takes into account the recent progress and improvement that has taken place in a period of difficult conditions, during which production and quality have been maintained and considerable building for the future has taken place in both pastures and stock, there is, nevertheless, need to mention two matters in regard to which there is considerable call for improvement—the quality of dairy produce and better control of the diseases of dairy stock. As in the past, the Dominion continues to give much attention to measures tho object of which is improvement of the quality of dairy produce—the system of farm-dairy instruction warrants specific mention in this regard. During the year 39 dairy farm instructors were employed by 89 dairy companies, receiving supplies from 36,098 farmers of a total of 70,258 suppliers to dairy factories for the whole of the Dominion. Hence, 34,166 suppliers to dairy factories did not receive direct advice regarding the quality of their produce.

In common with the dairying of other countries, New Zealand dairying suffers grave annual losses because of the diseases of dairy stock. In. respect of this one can obtain but little if any consolation from the fact that some of the major diseases, such as mastitis and contagious abortion, seem to be more burdensome at times overseas than in New Zealand, ami this in countries which have devoted more funds and ability to research relative to the control of the diseases than could be i>rovided by such a small country as New Zealand. As is indicated by the appended report of the Director of the Live Stock Division, the work of investigating these diseases continues to be prosecuted vigorously hi New Zealand, and at the same time New Zealand veterinarians and associated workers take pains to keep themselves acquainted with the results of cognate research overseas. SHEEP-FARMING POSITION, The somewhat unsatisfactory' condition of sheep farming in 1935 was replaced in 1936 by a remarkably buoyant one, comparable to that of 1934. The change was due largely to the great change in the wool position. The wool sold reached a record quantity, and the prices obtained in 1935-36 showed a marked improvement in comparison with those of the previous year. The following information taken from the annual review of Messrs Dalgety and Co. Ltd. sums up the position : “ The following gives a comparison of the results of the Dominion wool sales for the last two seasonsßales sold, 479,797 (1934-35) ; 756,833 (193536). Net weight, lb 164,618,251 (264,947,142); weight per bale, lb, 343 (350) ; gross value, £4,486,480 (£lO,083,297) ; average per bale," £9 7s (£l3 6s sd) ; average per lb, 6.54 d (9.13 d). “ The above shows the following increases for the 1935-36 season :—Bales, 277,036; weight, 100,328,8911 b; gross value, £5,595,817; value per bale, £3 19s sd; value per pound, 2.59 d. “ The production of ivool in the 1935-36 season has been computed as: Greasy wool, 625,240 bales; slipe, 91,992 bales; a total of 717,232 bales. The end of the season found a very small carry-over in the stores, the estimated total being 49,400 bales, as compared with a carry'-over of 186,679 bales at the end of the 1934-35 season. A feature of the 1935-36 wool season was the constant demand for <%ll classes offered, and the relative uniformity in prices from the beginning to the end of the selling season. The destination for the y r ear ended June, 1936, of only approximately 35 per cent, of the number of bales sold was the United Kingdom, whereas during the y’ear ended September, 1934, over 56 per cent, of New Zealand wool, and in the year elided September, .1935, over 58 1 >cr cent., was exported to the United Kingdom. , ~ As was the case a year ago, the worm wool position seems distinctly satisfactory from the viewpoint of New Zealand producers, but, of course, unexpected developments later may' affect the market. Recent decreases in the world’s sheep population, which in the case of some countries are quite substantial, have been recorded. Trances sheep population, for instance, has dropped from 14 millions in 1914 to 9.8 millions in 1933.. On the other hand, stocks of cross-bred wool at consuming centres were at March of this year brought down for the first time for many years to a normal figure, and the maintenance of the current consumption might lead to higher prices. Taken in conjunction with the present demand for wool, it seems of some significance that the ■ estimated world’s, annual production of raw wool, which has been declining steadily, was approximately two hundred t million pounds less in 1934-35 than it was in 1928-29. Recently—i.e., April, 1936 the Imperial Economic Committee stated: “Factors contributing to the present healthy statistical position of wool have been the fashion trend in the East, particularly Japan and China, where wool tissues enjoy a growing popularity, and the consequent industrial development in those countries (more particularly in Japan).” The estimated average lambing percentage in 1935 was 86.31; this is substantially less than that of 1934, which was 89.24, and indeed less than that of any year since 1930. However, because of the increase in the number of breeding ewes in 1935, the total number of lambs estimated for 1935 did not fall as much as the decreased lambing percentage would at first sight suggest; the estimated number of lambs for 1935 was 15,373,642, while for 1934 it was 15,680,393 estimated and 15,689,492 actually tailed. The lowered lambing percentage is considered to be due partly to the existence of facial eczema in some ewes when the rams were put out and partly to the fact that the season was not a good one for lambing in certain districts.

The interim return of sheep as at April 30, 1936, gives a total of over 30,000,000, which is an increase of nearly 1,000,(XX) on the previous year’s total, and which is the second highest total recorded—the peak year was 1930, when 30,841,000 sheep were in the Dominion on April 30. To some extent the sheep population as at April 30, while of customary accuracy as a return, does not represent the true position in the sheep ■ industry. This is because the figures relative to April 30 reflect the late killing season. Since April 30 slaughtering of wethers and lambs has proceeded much more freely than is usual at this season —approximately 160,000 more sheep were slaughtered during May and June, 1936, than in the same months of 1935, and, of course, the increase of 1,000,000 in sheep population is reduced by this number at the end of June. Tor the nine months ended June 30 the killings for.export were:—Lambs, 8,766,757 carcasses in 1935-36 and 8,782,242 carcasses in 1934-35; wethers, 1,143,311 carcasses in 1935-36 and 940,401 in 1934- ; ewes, 735,962 carcasses in 1935- and 1,179,092 carcasses in 193435. The sharp decline of 433,000 in the killings of ewes points to the strengthening of the number of breeding ewes by. including a larger proportion of old ewes. Some interest attaches to the fact that the killings of breeding ewes were high last year and again in 1931-32—noth years in which wool prices were abnormally low. Apart from an increase of 112,000 in the freight carcasses of boneless beef for export, the available returns do not point to any material change in the beef production. Probably any substantial future change in that respect will be correlated with developments in chilled beef production. While the normal high quality of New Zealand meat has been well maintained, it seems to behove us to ask whether this suffices in view of developments in the world’s meat trade. It probably may be said .with truth that quality is of more value in meat marketing now than it ever was before Some of our competitors in the world’s meat markets assiduously have been increasing not only their output but the quality of that output. In regard to lamb, for instance, the point may have been reached where there is danger that our supremacy in regard to quality—a supremacy which is so valuable to us—may be challenged. The New Zealand sheep industry cannot face such a possibility with equanimity. Fortunately there is no clear reason why its previous valuable eminence in respect to quality of lamb and mutton cannot be maintained.

FRUITGROWING. The area in commercial orchards in the Dominion remains practically stationary at about 27,000 acres, of which 11,700 are in the North Island and 15,400 in the South Island; any planting of new areas is largely offset by other established areas becoming unprofitable and going out of production. The conditions prevailing generally in the 1935-36 season were not at all favourable for orcharding. Considerable damage was done by gales in February, and, further, largely because of weather conditions, the amount of disease and of russeting was greater than usual. Despite the unfavourable conditions the quantity of fruit exported was greater than in the previous season, being 1,228,286 cases—l,lls,32o cases of apples and 112 ; 966 cases of pears—in comparison with 1,063,420 cases in the previous year, in which the quantity was the lowest since 1929. The total quantities in cases of apples and pears exported during the previous four years were: 1932, 1,596,058; 1933, 1,430,513; 1934, 1,574,912; 1935. 1,063,420. Throughout the season the fruit exported was in excellent condition. In general the handling of the fruit at the ship’s side was as satisfactory as can ho expected under the conditions obtaining. The local carriers of fruit —the shipping company and the Railway Department—gave good service. Although some modern vessels have been engaged upon the export fruit trade, the majority of the ships used were of an old type in which improvement for fruit carriage would be of value. Of the 1936 exports 818,973 cases went to London, 191,736 cases to the west coast of Britain, 61,659 cases to Southampton, 55,624 cases to Halifax, 30,000 cases to South America, 62,000 cases to the of Europe, and 7,790 cases to the East. The Government assists in the export of fruit; its liability does not exceed £12,500 for each year, and Government assistance is to cease with the 1937 payment. Citrus culture is making satisfactory headway, especially in the northern districts which are suitable for the production of citrus fruits. The total area now planted in citrus fruit trees is 1,884 acres, consisting of 1,300 acres of lemons and 584 acres of oranges; 112 acres were planted during the year. Good, seasonable crops of lemons were secured. While appreciable improvement in the grade and keeping quality of the fruit took place there remains room for further improvement. Growers are showing a keen interest in this and a desire to improve their knowledge. Regulations relative to the grading and packing of cirtus fruit were brought into force in December, 1935, and growers are satisfactorily endeavouring to meet the position. The New Zealand grapefruit (Poorman orange) is coming into favour rapidly as a breakfast fruit, and plantings are being made to meet the demand. Various phases of citrus growing have been investigated, and further investigation is contemplated. The co-operative grading and packing shed at Kerikeri is nearing completition, and this should be of great value to citrus growers in that district, where the citrus industry is of considerable size. Passion fruit culture which received considerable attention a few years ago has not made any progress during the past year. There is evidence of increasing demand for New Zealand wines and of expansion in vineyards. The season was unsatisfactory because of the weather generally, and particularly the February storm, and it is considered the season’s wine production will not exceed 100,000 gallons in comparison with 148,000 gallons in the previous season. Many demands have been made upon the department for advice regarding orcharding, and as a means of ensuring that such demands for advice will be met in a fully satisfactory manner in the future, a considerable amount of investigational work is being _ undertaken; trials carried out during the year numbered 75, An important series of the trials relates to the use of fertilisers and lime. The investigational work relates also to root stocks, spraying, grafting, variety tests, and fruit cold storage. Especial attention has been given to cold storage, because of its importance in orcharding, and the work has included experiments carried out in conjuncton with the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research. A portion of the work is now reaching finality, and it is clear that some very useful information is being obtained. The work ranges over a wide field and deals with the influence of locality and soil types on the keeping quality of apples, the influence of maturity on the incidence of bitter pit in Cox’s Orange Pippin, the use of oil wraps in the control of scald, the influence of storage temperatures on internal breakdown, and the influence of methods of handling on overseas transport.