WAR DECLARED.

Dominion, Volume 5, Issue 1247, 2 October 1911, Page 7

WAR DECLARED.

~ • . -4— ■ TRIPOLI BLOCKADED -BY ITALY. WAR VESSELS- SUNK. TURKISH 'MINISTRY: RESIGNS. TROUBLE FEARED IN GREECE. Rome, September 29. ' It is officially stated that the Ottoman Government has failed to meet Italy's ultimatum, and that Italy and Turkey are in a state of 2.30 p.m. to-day. The blockade of Tripoli and Cyrenaica will be immediately notified to the Powers. . (Rec. October 1) 5.5 p.m.) Constantinople, September 30. The Agerico Ottoman publishes an urgent telegram f r °ro stating that tho Italian troops landed and hoisted the Italian flag on t Government Buildings. , The newspapers shortly afterwards published a report that the Turks sank the first two barges which were about to land troops. . • ' London, September. 1. I The "Daily Mail" correspondent in Tripoli reports that an Italian destroyer, carrying a white flag, ontered the port and summoned the garrison to surrender. The authorities declined the summons. (Rec. October 1, 5.5 p.m.) London, September 30, Router's correspondent at Salonika reports that an Italian cruiser sank j destroyer in the .harbour of Prevesa, a" Turkish seaport on the Adriatic, and landed, troops.' •; • ■ Athens, September 30. It is officially announced from Vonitza that" an'ltalian squadron off Prevosa attacked ahd pursued six' Turkish torpedo boats. One of these' boats was wrecked, and one' took refuge in Prevesa, The remainder escaped. _ , , Constantinople, September 29,... The Cabinet has resigned. Mahmud Pasha, Minister for War, alone remains in office. . ' (Rec. October 2, 0.25 a.m.)' ■Constantinople, September 29. It Is officially reported that Greece is mobilising her army. Tho Porto has decided to strengthen the Turkish forces on the Greek and Montenegrin, frontiers. , •

FIRST BLOOD TO ITALY. TURKISH DESTROYER AND TOR- ' PEDO-BOAT SUNK. , A TRANSPORT CAPTURED. (Rec. October 2, 0.25 a.m.) Roms, October 1. It i 3 officially, stated that the Italian destroyers, Artigliore and Corazziere, sank a Turkish destroyer and a torpedo-boat at Provesa on Saturday morning. ~ The destroyer Alpino captured a steamer with a Greek crew, containing five Turkish officers and 162 Turkish soldiers, together with a largo quantity of munitioiis of war and grain. There were no Italian casualties. TURKEY'S REPLY. SURPRISED AT ITALY'S Constantinople, September 29. 1 .The Porte, replying to the ultimatum, Bays it is surprised at Italy's action, and hopes the Italian Government will desist from the contemplated measures. • The Ottoman Government ■ omphasises its dofiro far a sottlemenit, and promises to suspend military measures during negotiationa. - ■■' , - ;< • Router's Constantinople correspondent reports that on Friday the Extraordinary Council, held in. the Palace, sat till past midnight It was afterwards reported that tho Government had decided to appeal to Italy's honesty, and good feeling, but to rojoot tho demand for-a military occupation, and also to make .a fresh appeal to tho Powers for intervention. , Another messago received from Renter's correspondent states thtat tho Ottoman Government has decided not to oppese tiho landing of Italian troops at Tripoli. SOME RUMOUR'S. TURKISH REPRISALS IN GREECE. OCCUPATION OF TKESSAIY. . (Eec. October 1, 5.5 p.m.) ■ ' London, September 30. Renter's Agency reports fhat Turkey intends'to demand flat Greece'shall relinquish all future claims to Crete. If Greeoo refuses, Turkey 'will esecuto military operations on tho frontier of T'hessaly. The Albanians are aiming, and a renewal of the trouble in Albania threatened. Mr. Lucien Wolff, foreign editor of the "Daily Graphic," writing in his paper, also foresees that it is possible that Turkey, by way of reprisals for tho taking of Mussulman Tripoli, may seize Christian Thessaiy, which will probably entail a European war. GERMAN MEDIATION. A BASIS SUGGESTED. (Rec. October 1, 5.5 p.m.) Vienna, September 30. It is reported that negotiations between Turkey nnd Italy will begin under Germany's auspices on tho basis of tho establishment of an Italian protectorate over Tripoli, or tho occupation of Tripoli by Italy, the administration remaining in the Sultan's name. THE TRIPLE ALLIANCE. PRESSURE BY GERMANY AND AUSTRIA. London, September 29. The Vienna correspondent of tho "Daily Chronicle" states that Austria and Germany aj-o urging the Porto to allow tho pacific occupation of Tripoli by the Italian troops. The plan of occupation was decided weeks ago, aftor an exchango of views by tho Cabinets of tho Triple Alliance. CAUSES OF THE WAR. TURKISH EXCESSES ALLEGED. ' I THE OTHER SIDE OF THE STOEY. (Rec. October 1, 5.5 p.m.) London, September 30. Information from Italian sources describes tho crisis as the result of a long wrlcs o' excesses and impositions upon Italians in ovory part of tho Turkish Empiro, coupletl with vexatious delays, denials of justice, and insults. ■ One incident cited is that an Italian girl was abducted at Adana, in Asia Minor, aid compelled to marry a Mohammedan. It is alleged that the Turkish authorial on tho Red Sea and the Arabian,

coast, opposite tlio Italian colony of, Eritrea, are aljvays violent and provocativo in their attitude. ' Several official acts of piracy against Italians are recorded, and also a number of crimes, including murder. Turkey represents Italy's action as an attempt to rcaliso long-cherished ambitions. It is declared that in 1903 Italy vainly asked the Porte to grant all concessions for public worts in Tripoli' to Italians, which would bo synonymous with declaring a protectorate. Turkey recognised Italy's economic interests, and ,tho majority of concessions were given to Italians. The case of the Bank of Rome is quoted as an instance. ITALY CONDEMNED. BRITISH AND FOREIGN'VIEWS,. . SURPRISE-IN LONDON. (Rec. October 1, 5.5 p.m.), London, September 30. • Italy's declaration of' war ■ caused- the utmost surprise 'in' -Londoni reply to' tho ultimatam"' Ekvin%*"-created a hopeful feeling/ » London,. September 29. The "Daily Mail" states that the ultimatum will seem, even to tho warmest friends of Italy, cruel and violent. The "Standard" rays thai . Italy is adopting tho law of tho mailed fist and the pirato galley. It is easier to apply i'jio torch than to sol bounds to the conflagration. Tho paper adds that Turkey, outraged,' despoiled, and-humiliated, may seek revengo equally with her aggressor, and, tho Christian States failing to protect her from flagrant wrong, the reflex consequences will injure almost everybody. Tho "Daily News" declares that it is impossible to expect or. desire that Turkey will submit tamely to as brutal an act of aggression as history records. It concludes by urging Sir Edward Grey, the Foreign Secretary, to intervene, as Germany has done, with a view to inducing moderation of the demands and to •ensuring peace. Tlio "Horning Leader" ridicules the declaration in the Italian Note that, owing to Turkey's sending reinforcements dospito Italy's warnings regarding the excitement and the perils resulting therefrom,'tho Italian Government was forced tj think of tho guardianship of its dignity and interests, and hence had decided to proceed with the occupation. It adds: "Italy is in a hurry lest if time is allowed for the enormity of tho proceedings to b» appreciated, tho revolt of opinion in Europe outside the. Foreign Offices will bo too pronounced to be ignored." GERMAN DENUNCIATION. BRITISH HYPOCRISY ALLEGED. (Rec. October 2, 0.25 a.m.) Berlin, October 1. The entire Germaji press, in commenting on tho Italian ultimatum before tho sequel was known, vehemently denounced Italy's precipitato action. The "Berliner Post" insists tha,t Groait Britain must have incited Italy, and that the "British press condemnation of Italy's action is sheer hypocrisy. BRUTAL ITALIAN POLICY. EFFECT IN BALKANS FEARED. Paris, September 23. A section of the French newspapers regrets Italy's precipitate action. The "Journal" refers to tho brutality o.f Italy's policy, and is astonished-at the passivity of tho Powers. (Rec. October 1, 5.5 p.m.) Paris, September 30. The newspapers consider that hostilities in Tripoli will not develop to a great extent, owing to tho inequality of tho oppbs- 1 ing foroes, though they admit that the crisis may possibly havo a serious, effect on tho situation in tho'Balkans. THE AMERICAN VIEW. NATURAL SEQUENCE TO MOROCCO CRISIS. (Rec. October 1, 5.5 p.m.) Washington, September 30. The declaration of war between Italy and Turkey, coming practically without notice, croated a sensation in America. It is officially stated that tho situation *3 regarded as a natural eequenco to the Franco-German negotiations with regard to Morocco. The American Government will keep clear of the struajla.

; r pEtfNGTIff 7 TTALY. r: ~1 f.r- —'' • ». t>• " ANTIWAR DEMONSTRATIONS. /■ . r PATRIOTIC* CITIZENS OF-'RCiMK . ■ " ! x •• _ EOME..." • (Rec. October 1, 5.5 p.m.) Rome, September 30. Tho newspapers tiro publishing frequent spccial. editions, which tho crowds are eagerly • snatching. ' ' 1 A lmgo procession made a patriotic demonstration outsido tho offices of tho •Ministers of War and Foreign Affairs. • •Tripoli was occupied at threo o'clock yesterday afternoon, tho entry of tho Italian troops being unopposed. Romo, September 29. ' Hostility to Italy's policy is causing acts of vandalism' in various districts. Demonstrators tried to prevent tho departure of troops from Parma, Tho Carabineers fired, killing five .persons and wounding twelve. t • • Tho mob cut tho telegraphs, uprqoted tho poles, and attempted to burn tho, barracks. , Tho Italian fleet has been ordered to blockade the'Tripolitan coast. •' HOSTAGES FOp TURKEY. ITALIAN'RESIDENTS' EATE. ■ London, September 29. The "Daily Mail's" Saloniki representative says .that-.'there ' aro a hundred 'thousand Italians in Turkey, whom tho Young Turks, in the event of war, will treat ns .'hostages. WAR, RISKS.' BIG RISE AND FALL. (Rec. October 1, 5.5 p.in.) ; London, September 30. War risks are being covered in London at 35 per cent. ' The rates advanced to 70 p'or cent., and then declined to 20 on tho announcement th'at the Porto wo.uld not oppose the landing of Italian troops in Tripoli. 4 i. . TRIPOLI AND ITS TOWNS. A PROVINCE WITH A VARIED HISTORY. ! . ' . y . ANCIENT 1 AIR OF' PIRATES. .Tripoli is mado up of a strip of fertile soil adjacent to the sea, with vast sapdy plains and. parallel chains of rocky moim- , tains, whiclj finally'join tho Atlas range

near Kairwan, in Tunis., It is naturally divided into live parts, viz., Tripoli proper, to the north-east of which is tho plateau of Barca and Jebel ejL Akhdar, to the south the oasis of Fezzan, to "the south-east that of Auiala, and to .the south-wost that of Ghadamea. It is'very badly watered; the rivers are small, and the (lefc.rt wells and catering places often dry. These oases ' with the intervening stony spaces occupy tho whole space between the -French co-lony of Tunis and Egypt, and extend from thq Mediterranean southward to the Tropic of Cancer. Tho collective aTea is about 400,000 square, miles, and tho population is variously estimated at from 1,200,000 to 1,600,000. Towards tho south and cast the frontier is still undefined. After fallins successively into the hands of the Phoenicians, Romans, Vandals, and Greeks, Tripoli was finally conquered by tho Arabs twelve centuries ago, and has remained a Moslem State ever since. 1n,1510 Ferdinand the Catholic of Spain took it, and thirteen years lator it was given to tho Knights of St, John, who wero expelled in 1553 by tho Turkish corsairs Dragut and Siuan. Dragut afterwards fell in Malta, and, after hi.= death, the connection between Tripoli and Constantinople seems to havo been considerably weakened. But tho T'ripolitan pirates soon became tho terror of the Mediterranean,' and half tho States of Europo seem at one timo or another to liavo sent their fleets to bombard tho capital. In 1714, when the present lino of beys in Tunis was founded, Ahmed Pasha Caramauli echioved independence, and his descendants governed Tripoli umtil 1835. In that year tho Turks took advantage of a civil war to reassert their authority, and sinco that date Tripoli has become a vilayet or outlying province of tho Turkish Empire. In administrative purposes tho provinco is divided into five districts, which arc again subdivided into twenty-live cantons. Each viUago has its sheikh, who is assisted by a sort of municipal council. After tho invasion of Tunis by the French, the Turkish garrison in Tripoli _ was considerably increased and a beginning was mado with erection of fortifications at points along the coast. Tripoli, tho capital' o£ tho province, is ono of the oldest places in tho world, and no doubt owes its stability in large measure to its position over against Sicily at the northern terminus of three great historic , caravan route, ono of which runs duo south to Lake Tchad through Fczzan awl Bilma, that is. across tihe narrowest part of tho Sahara; another runs south-west through Ghadamcs to Timbuktu.'and tho third south by east through Sokna to AVadai and Darl'ur. The city, whitfh has a population (19C0) of 30,000 willhin its crumbling walls, bosides an denial number of fonii-uomad Arabs and Negro t'reixlmen in tho Meshiya district round about tho ramparts, occupies tho south-west side of a cres-cent-shaped Kay partly sheltered by a chain of low roofs from tho northom winds. Tho harbour- or roadstead has a depth of about 20 feet, but owimr to a dangerous bar is inacCMfliblo to vesiels '. draiviLS qvsi H Ust» .

•;i In'BftroaTtHe bHly.impoxtant ceatfo ol .'population, ' "is •'••Bcnsifaa,, tlio»xincient' Borofiicc, at tho 'southern extremi.tr of a hKidlfind which formerly cncloscd' a spacious natural haven;on- the north-east side of . the Gulf of Sidra. But tlio liar-, bour lias been partly filled up by' l:ho ruins of a Jartro fortress, and is nois: in-, accessible to." vessels drawing over 6 nr 7 feet, ' "BenKliazi has a'injxcil population' of about 15,000 Arabs, Berbers; Jews, ai)d Negroes. • East of Benghazi is . tlio exposed road'ste.ad of Derna, - which was oooupiod by th 6' Americans.;in JBl5. Nothing has been dono to .Hie harbour works b<>' gun by thorn; but it is now proposed to restorv'fcho port of'MaTsa-Snsa, tlw ancient Apollonia, which'tics under tho R-as Sern headland, and. was formerly much frequented as tlio emporium of tlio neighbouring citv of Cyi-eno (Greiuia). Tlio Government lias displayed much activity in this fertile and healthy district, to which 'have been removed many of tho Turkish inhabitants of Croto dissatisfied with tho pre.se.nt relations in that island. Nearly tlio whole "of 'tlio foreign exchanges pass through tho ports'of Tripoli and Benghazi. The caravan trade across tho Sahara' with Sudan has sulTored a severe blow by tho opening of new routes to 'the Atlantic through British and French territories .Niger, Benue, and Senegal routes). The convoys bound for the interior of the continent" are .laden beads, Bohemian glass, silk, papor, tea, and sugar, aud return with ostrich feathers, dressed goat-skins, and ivexy. Some chiefly with English cottons, Venetian of these wares reach the capital from Yfadai by the Benghazi route. ' THE RIVAL NAVIES, TURKEY COMPLETELY OUTCLASSED. . NO CONVOYS FOE.TRANSPORT. So far as naval power is 'concerned Italy, of course, is in "a different class altogether from Turkey. Tho eight Italian battleships and twenty-two cruisers would find littlo difficulty in demolishing Turkey's three battleships and eight cruisers,, many of tho Turkish vessois being obsolote. Tho Italian fleot in commission has been organised- into a battleship squadron' of six battleships, from tlve Vittcvio Emanuelo 111 typo and two of tho Bcnodetto Brii} type, and into a cruiser squadron. of seven armoured cruisers, with four scouts and four destrdyers. • In tho reserve division aro included five battleships and threo armoured I cruisers. I The personnel of thei Italian Navv I consists of ISOB officers' (comprising 1 admiral, 23 , vice-admirals and rearadmirals, .204 Captains and commanders,' 1 648' lieutenants and sub-lieu tenants, IGS midshipmen, 92 engineer-constructors, 2G2 engineers, -60S sanitary and commissariat officers, 141 officers of tho Corpo RcaJo Equipaggi); and 28,500 men (sailors, gunners, mechanicians, etc.).

The Turkisl) Navy has grown, of ' lato by tho purchase of. vfessels from GerTho sister battleships liurfuerst Friedrich Wilhclm and Weissenburg, which were just reaching tho ago for suppression under the German Navy law wero sold to Turkey in August, 1910, for £900,000. They wore renamed Kheyr ; edDih Barbarossa and Turgut Eeis .respectively. Four destroyers were also purchased from Germany last year at a cost of -£450,000. [n February of this year threo North Germany Lloyd lintfrs, tho Darmstadt and Oldenburg (5000 tons) aDd the Roland (3600 ' tons) were purchased for tho transport service. For the navy of Turkey the crews are raised in the saino manner as tho land forces, partly by conscription, and part-, ly voluntary enlistment. The time of scrvico in the navy is twelve years, five in active 'service, thrco in the'reserve, and four in the Redif. The nominal strength of the navy is G vice-ad-mirals, 11 rear-admirals, 208 captains, 289 commanders, 228 lieutenants, 187 ensigns, and 30,000 sailors, besides about .9000 marines. The ships of each navy as given in tho "Naval Annual" for 1911 are as follow :— ITALY. • BATTLESHIPS (8). ■ * 12-in. Speed Launched. Tons. guns, knots. Rogina Elena 1901 12,425 2 22 V. Emmanuele 111 1904 12,425 2 22 Roma 1907 12,425 2 22 Napoli 1905 12,425 2 22 Regina Marghintd... 1901 13,211 1 20.2 Benedotto Brin 1901 13,214 4 19.5 U. Tiliberto ... 1897 9,645 i* 18.3 Saint Bon 1897 9,613 4* 18.3 *10-inch guns. FIRST-CLASS CRUISERS (7). Launched. Tons. Guns. Speed. Arnalfi 1908- 9832 4 lOrn. 23.6 Pisa 1907 9832 4 lOin. 23 San Giorgio ... 1908 9532 4 lOin. 22.5 Sail Marco ... 190S 9532 4 lOin. 22.5 Giieseppe Gari- 1 lOin. baldi 1899 7294 2 Sin.' 20 Varcs-o 1899. 7294 do. 20 F. Fermccio... 1902 7294 do. 20 SECOND-CLASS CRUISERS (3). Carlo Alberto 1896 639G 12 fiin. 19.2 Vettor I'isani 1895 6396 12 6iu. 2ft Marco Polo ... 1892 4511 6 5.9 in. 19 THIRD-CLASS CRUISERS (12). Tons. • Knots. • Fioramosa - 3534 171 Htromboli 3830 17 Picmonto 2597 21 Calabria 2428 17 Wba 265(1 IS Giovanni Bausan ... 3277 17V Etniria - 2245 1 9 Liguria 2245 18 .. Umbria 2245 18 Lombardia 2351 17 l'uglia 2498 20 Destroyers 21 Torpedo boats, Drat and second-claw,.. 43 Submarine boats 7

" Y 7 " TOHKEY7 ~r BATTLESHIPS (3). ' Launched. 'I'ons. Guns. Speed. ICheyr-ed-Din • ' Barbarossa 1801 -0001 ,G ,llin. ,1? Messoudieh '... 1874 9120 '20.2 in. 17.5 Turgut Reis ... 1801 9001 ; G llin.', 17 ' CRUISKRS (S). Airfar-i-Towfik ' 18C8 4018 3 f>.9iu. 13 Ilaraidieh . ...- 18S5 G7OO (casemato Abdul Hamid„. 11)03 ' 3800 2 Gin.''22.2 Berkfi-Satvet ..." 1000 740 ' 2 4in. 22 Ileihetnuma ... 1800 lOGfl :l 5.9 in. H Medjidieh ISO.') ;14.'12 2 Gin. i! 2.2 Poik-i-Shcybet... 190G 740 2 4in. 22 Pelcnk-Meria... • 1890 840 2 4in. 20 Destroyers in Torped<> boats 19 THE NEW TURKISH ARMY. MAHMUD SHEVKET PASHA AND HIS WORK. WELL-PLANNED REORGANISATION. Since 1902 there lias been'in Tripoli a Turkish militia 1 force *of ( eight-bat-talions and six cavalry "regiments, service in which is compulsory, and it was hoped that a coinplcto lvcdif division would bo' organised .eventually. During .tho pagfc .'century, writes M. Andro G'lieradamo' in tho "Quarterly Review," tho'Turkish army has undergone three fundamental'reorganisations. The first of tlieso dates from 1842, and took place, 'consequently, throo, years after tho departuro of Moltko from-.Constan-tinople. It was tho work of Khusrev Pasha, and shows evidont signs of Prussian inspiration. Under this 6chemo the Ottoman territory was divided into 6ix military districts, an arrangement which at first provided Turkey with 250,000 men, and was destined to last for more than rfixty years. Tho stcond military organisation dates from.lß69j it was tho work of tho Minister .'Huseyn Avni I'asha. IJnder its provisions tho number of men' was raised Uo 400,000; fbt> ■ySars later in 1874, such further additions wero made to tho total of'reservists or redifs that during the war with Russia it was possible to mobilise 700,000 men.< Finally, in the present year 1911, Man mud Shovlet Pasha has just completed the third and by far the most important process of reconstruction. All these reforms, and particularly the last, have been, carried out under the over- ■ increasintj/ influence of the Germans. rho ni,ih who is carrying through a thorough reform'of this state of things is, as is well known, Mahmud Shevket lasha, the present War' Jlinister, and tho only member of (ho Cabinet remaining in office; and it is not without interest to glance at the chief points in his career. Malumni Shevket Pasha is of 'Arab descent and wis born at Baghdad. In 1880 110 was a 1 pupil at tho military school of Constantinople. Ho left at the licad of his class and ob-

tamed an appointment on tho General Staff. On the arrival of Colonel Von der Goltz at Constantingpie to reorganise the forces Mahmud Shovket became his immediate associate, and worked (for three years in conjunction with him.'ln 1881 Mahmud was sent to Germany to superintend tho manufacture of Mauser rifles and other warlike stores which wore being supplied to Turkey by Ger-, man firms. Ho remained in Germany ten years; and it was during this period that he formed those close friendships with various members of the military world which naturally left him a conV vinced disciplo of German military mothods. , On. his Teturn, to Turkoy in 1831 Mahmud filled various military posts. In April 1905 he was sent to Uskub as Vali of the Vilayet of Kossovo, • whero he remained till August, 190 S. During this period of his life those who caine into oontact with Mailmud found him to be a inan of high intelligence, but little inclined to accept responsibility. •no} A Virtual Dictator, The Young Turk revolution took place in .Tuly, 1908; and, through the influence of the Committee of Union and Progress, Mahmud Shevket' was sent to take command of the 3rd Army Corps at Salonika. It was in this capacity that, after the counter-revolution of April, 1909, ho marched on Constantinople. When tho responsibility of this all-important step ha<l to bo faoe'd, it was Colonel Ali Riza —a first-rate officer and Mahmud's rightA hand man—who overcame the final hesitation of his chief. Their, daring step was crowned witli brilliant success; and from that moment Mahmud was a changed man. His former indecision gave place to firmntss and. resolution; and he found himself invested In- the course of events with so great authority that ho was obliged to assume, in spite of himself, the carriago iand tono of a dictator; ho was convinccd that ho had a mission to fulfil, and would submit fro no hindrance. Such, in the essentials of his character, is the man who is directing the reorganisation of (he Ottoman army. What is the nature of this reorganisation? On the advice of German officers, and of Von dor Goltz in particular, Mahmud came to the conclusion that tho old system must bo mdically changed. Tho principle underlying tho new organisation consists in .the uniformity of the army corps, which aro all composed of identical elements. Tho division forms the fundamental unit. The divisions are distributed among fourteen army corps, of which seven aro in Europo and seven in Asia. Tho principle running through the new organisation of the Turkish army is that of groups of throe, tho Army Corps having threo divisions, each division three regiments, and each regiment, three battalions. This arrangement admits of a maximum of combinations. According to our latest information, a typical division of tho new army comprises threo regiments of infantry of threo battalions .each, ono battalion of

unasseurs (mcnanaji/,. ono reguuvnf -oi artillery consisting of six batteries each of four quick-firing guris, two" squjidroiis of cavalry, ono detachment of tho Medi* («1 Corps, and one dclaehment ■of the military train. ■ '" ' • In addition, and independently of .the divisions, thcro are attached (o earth Army Corps, oho battalion of engineerrs, three batteries of heavy, artillery, six batteries' of mountain artillery, ond brigade of cavalry, ono regiment . of Chasseurs (Nichamlji), one detaclmicnt of Iho military train, ono dctachment of the Medical Corps. Tho Minister's Ideal. It is, moreover, of interest to observe that the third battalion of each regiment is a skeleton battalion, a sort of clu.stiii body which, on mobilisation, will be brought ii]) to its full strength, but which .in poaeo time ia used for tho instruction of'■ reservist!) who have joined for their ixiriod of training, and of recniita arriving 'from fur-oil districts and at different. times of the year. In 111 in skeleton battalion lies the gflrin, of tho fiituro growth of Iho Ottoman 'army. 'J'lio extent of I hi.s growth' may wil.li fair accuracy bo measured boforehand, for Mia .military formula which embodies tho ideas of Mahmitd Shcvket Pasha is well know ii i Hi.s ultimate iifoal is an army sufficiently strong to oppose tho combined forces' of Bulgaria, Sorvia, Grneco, and .Russia, and at thft samo timo to keep order at homo. Mabmud aims at bcin#' prepared for operations on all frontiers simultaneously, and with that view ho contemplates tht creation of an army which on a war-footing will number not less than 1,500,000 combatants. Tho military reorganisation above has been accompanied by extensive purchases'of war material, which, sinco the rovoliitiou, have a-lxsorbed most of Turkey's available resources. The Turks aro consequently at tho present, moment ■well equipped with uniforms, rifles, and guns. They are amply supplied wi.th ammunition, 250 rounds apieco being provided for their heavy naval guns, and 300 rounds apicce for their gnus of lnodium-calibre. The fiold artillery and infalpjfy are also abundantly furnished; M.'-Km 4 from this point of view, tho Turkish army 'is already in a position to. face the gravest issues. ITALY'S LAND FORCES. ARMY CORPS ON GERMAN LINES. STRENGTH IN 1910. - Service in tho ariny in Italy is compulsory and universal, and tho term of service in tho ranks is now two. years for all arms. The field army, aocording to the "Statesman's .-Year Book" for. 1011, consists of 12, aTinv corps and Ii cavalry divisions (G. brigades). Tho. army corps aro organised' much like thoso of Germany, consisting of 2 divisions (each of

1 12 battalions), except tlio IXth armj 1 corps, in the Roman district, which ha; 3 an additional division. There is a regis incut of field artillery (5 batteries) tc r each division, and a regiment • of field i artillery (0 batteries), and a cavalry regii meiit to each army corps. r The.Alp ini are frontier troops, specialty i organised to defend the mountain passes leading into Italy from the north. Thsj r consist of 8 regiments (20 battalions) ol I Alpine infantry, and 2 regiments of 24 5 mountain artillery batteries. p Tho Carabinieri are a force of military . police. Thoy aro recruited by solccl.jii j trom the army, and they remain in the ! ranks of the force until they have comt pleted 5 years' service. Thoy then serve j in the resorvo of tho carabinieri for J . years, niter which they are transferred to-the territorial militia for tho remainJ der of their service. The carabinieri ar< " spread.all over tho kingdom, and per- . form civil duties, but are reckoned as u t part of tho army. The strength of "the field army (12 army I corps and independent cavalry) is about ■100,000 combatants. Tho nominal strength of tho mobile militia is 320,000, but the I numbers put into the field would not per- ? haps exceed 200,000. Tho "complementary'' < troops should be sufficient to maintain " the strength of the first line, and mobile " militia in the helel. Tho territorial militia r is strong numerically, but only about haJi 5 tho number, viz., tho iinst category men 5 who have passed through the army and ' mobile militia, could bo made use of, 1 should its services ever bo required. * Tho arm of the Italian infantry is the - Maunlicher Caneano rifle, a magazine J weapon of 0.5 mm. calibre. Tho terri--1 torial militia lias the old Vetterli. <• The field artillery is being rearmed with i Krupp guns, calibre 7.5 cm., model 1906. ; The following table gives tho peacc ) strength of tho ltatiuu army in 1910:— r rs I - I ■ ' « li ) S U ' o 3 o 53 M 2 , Administration, staff, military schools, t etc.' 1,113 4,017 2,06" l Infantry, ,182 Ixfttt tations, and 88 disl trict headquarters' 7,203 122,418 5,18 a - Cav.'ilry, 145 squad--3 roits,"and 2!) depots 1,051 20,610 22,675 . Artillery, 2-15 bat--5 tcrips, 98 companf ies, 51 depots, etc.' 1,781 33,0)3 17,6-18 3 Knginecrs, 74 comi panics, and 10 , companies en- ! ginccr train 513 8,71f> 1,050 Medical, 12 companr ies 406 3,391 76 t Commissariat, 12 - companies 383 2,97S 32 , Carabineers, 12 legions 741 28,927 4,329 1 Total 13,617 225,000 53,062 i Tho military budget of Italy for 1910-U - amounted to .£14,277,850, includi'ii* f .U2.003.700 extraordinary expenditure. In E 1505, extra crcdit of no loss thou

-a.o I j>-i>,uuu. iiBB-gruuicu.-wj m sprcuu over 3'^ rs * J-liis amount is to bo spout on tpo re-armament, of Hie .artillery, 'guns for "permanent; works, fortifications, rail-' ,wiiys, barracks, mobilisation, Mores, i and horses,' . Tho Italians havo n special African corps in Erythrea, consisting of 3 com.panics of whito- infantry aiul» t nativo battalions; also 1 squadron of nativo rav.llry, a local company of artillery (Italians), and'a native mounted battery, lt-i total strength is'about '1,000 of nil ranks, of whom about 11800 arc natives. Jn Italian Soma!Hand there is a nativo corns (including ,local artillery), with Italian nlliecrs, and a body of inilitaYy police. 'J'otal strength libout 3000 of all rallies. HOW TURKEY DEFEATED GREECE. STORY OF THE WAR OF 1897. ' A SUCCESSFUL CAMPAIGN. 1 urkoy fl last appearance as a combatant, ajvirfc from her numerous interval campaigns, was ill 1897, when Greece attempted to seige (lie Turkish island of u-etn, defied tho demand of the Powers for tlio withdrawal of tho Greek anny from Crcto, -and 011 the mainland disnatched irregular forces across tho Turkish frontier at the beginning of April of that year. On April 17 Turkey declared war, and, after a short but disastrous campaign for Grccoe, hostilities ended on May 19. This war involved practically two distinct campaigns, in Thessaly and jji Epirus. Upon tho Tliessalian frontier, says ono historian, the Turks, early in March, had concentrated six divisions (about ( 58,000 men), 1500 sabecs, and 150 guns, under Edhcm Pasha. A seventh diyisicn was rendered available a littlo . 0 Greek's numbered alxiut 45,000 miantry, 80Q cavalry, and !)G guns, under tho Crown Prince. On both sides there was a considerable dispersion of forces along tho frontier. Tho Turkish navy, aii important factor in tho war of i°"-<B, had. become ■ paralytic ten years later, and the Greek squadron held complete command of the sea. Expeditionary forces directed against tho Turkish lino of communications might have infliKnctti tho course of tho campaign; but for such work tho Greeks were quite unprepared, and beyond bombarding ono or two insignificant ports on tho coastline, and- aiding Mm transport of troops from Athens to 'Volo, the navy practically accomplished nothing. ' On April 9 and 10 Greek irregulars crossed (lie frontier, either with a view to provoke hostilities or. in tho hops of fomenting a rising in Macedonia. On Aptil 18 Edhem Pasha, wlicso headquarters bad for some time been established at Elassonn. ordcted a general advance. The Turkish plan was to turn tlw Greek left and to bring on a decisive action, but this was not carried out. At Mati, covering tho road to Tyrnavo, .the Greeks <ntrench«! Ihemsslrcs. Here ( slurp fighting occurred on April 21. and 22, during which the Greeks sought to turn tlio right flank of the superior Turkish central column. On April 23 lighting was renewed, and the Greelcs were threatened on Imth flanks. lii the eveu- , ing a general 1 retreat was ordered, and the loose discipline ol the Greek ai-m-r was at onco manifested. Rumours of disasters spread among tho ranks, and wild panic supervened. In gre:t disorder the mass of tho Greek anliy fled southwards to Phnrsala. There was no . pursuit, aud the Turkish commander-in-chief did iot reach La'rissa till April 27. Greece in Retreat. Larissa being abandoned by tho Greeks, \ r elestino, tho 'junction of tho 'i'hossalian railways, where* there ■ vas a, strong position covering Volo, seemed to.be the natural rallying point for the Greek army. • Whether by direction or by . natural impulse, however, tho mass of the Greek troops made for- I'harsala, ivhcrc some order was re-established,- and preparations wero made to resist attack. Tim. importance of Velestino was recognised by sending a brigade thither by railway from Pharsalo, and tho inferior Greek ariuy'was thus split into two portions, separated by nearly 40 miles. On April 27 a Turkish reconnaissanoo on \ r elest,ino was repulsed, and further fighting-occurred on April-2'J and 30, in which tho- Greeks, under Colonel Sinolen-' ski, held their own. Mtanwliilo the Turks mad<! preparations to attack Phnrsala, and on May 5 tho Greeks wero drken from their positions in front of tho town by three divisions. Furthsr: fighting followed on May 0, and in the evening the Greek army l'etifed in fair order upon Domokos. Again delaying, Edhem Pasha did not attack Domokos till May 17, giving tho Greeks tiino to 'entrench their positions. The attack was delivered in three columns, of which the -right was ch-ecked and the centre failed to take, the Greek trenches and suffered much loss. The left column, however, menaced the lino of retreat, and tho Greek army abandoned tho whole position during tho night. Tho Greek forces being much demoralised, tho intervention of the Tsar was invoked by tolegraph; and the latter sent a personal appeal to tho Sultan, who directed a suspension of hostilities! On May 20 an arniisticn was arranged. In Epirus at the outbreak of war about 15,000 Greeks, including a cavalry regiment and five batteries, tho 'whole under Colonel .Manos, occupied' a lino of defence from Arta to Pcta. Tho Turks,' about 28,000 strong, with fortyeight guns, under Achniet Hifsi Pasha, wero distributed mainly at launina, Pentepasudia, and in front of Arta. On April IS the Turks commenced a three days' Iwmbardmcnt of Arta; but successive attempts to take tlio bridge wore repulsed, and during the night of April 21 tho.y retired oil Philippiada, 2fi miles distant, which was attacked and occupied by Colonel Manos on April 23. The- ■ Greeks • tlien advanced to Pcntepagndia,' mooting with little resistance. Their' difficulties now began. After somo skirmishing on April 27 tho position held by I their advanced force near Hoiuopulos was attacked on April 28. Tho attack was renewed on April 2'J, aud no Greek reinforcements were forthcoming when needed. A retreat was ordered, which quickly degenerated into . panic-stricken flight to ana across Arta. Reinforcements, including 2500 Epiroto volunteers, wero sent to. Arta from Athena, and on May 12 another incursion into Turkish territory began. Tlio' Greeks fought well, and being reinforced by a battalion from the kft and, for a time, fairly held their own. On tho night of May 15 a retreat was ordered and woll carried out. The volunteers landed at tht mouth of tho Luro wero attacked and routed with heavy loss. > ■ • A Mismanaged Campaign. The campaign in Epirus thus failed as completely as that in Thessaly. Under tho terms of tho treaty of peace, signed on- September 20, aud arranged by tho European Powers, Turkey obtained an indemnity of .{iTj.OQO.OOO, and a rectification of the Thessaliau frontier, carrying with it somo strategic' advantage. History records, few more unjustifiable wars, writes Sir George Sydenham Clarkn, than that which Grcece gratuitously provoked. Tho Greek troops on several occasions showed tenacity and endurance, but discipline and cohesiMi were manifestly wanting, Many of tlio officers wero incapable; the campaign was gravely mismanaged; and politics, wliich ltd to tho war, impeded its operations. On the other hand, the fruits of tlio German tuition, which began in 18S0, aud received a powerful stimulus by the appointment of General von der (ioltz in 18S3, wero shown in the Turkish army. Tho mobilisation was on tlio whole smoothly carried out, and tlio newly-coniplctcd railways greatly facilitated tho concentration on the frontier. The young jschool of officers trained by General von d<r Goltz displayed ability, and tlio artillery at Phnrsala. aud Domokos was well handled. Tho superior leading was, however, not conspicuously successful; and while the rank ami file again showed excellent military qualities, political conditions aud tho Oriental predilection for half-measures mid for denying full responsibility and full powers to commanders in tho fiold enfeebled tlio conduct of the' campaign. Oil account of tlio total want of careful and systematic peace training on both sides, :> war which presented several interesting strategic problems provided warnings in place of military lessons. ITALY'S LAST CAMPAIGN. AN INGLORIjOUS CHAPTER OF HISTORY. THE DEFEATS IN ABYSSINIA. Tlio Italian Army has soon only ono campaign of ojiy oonsequonco 6inco tlio conclusion of the Continental vara of tho

'iujuuio m iusc oenvury. xnis was rao icr-/ miumtion to a .former di&istroua adventure' \ in Afrioa, when'an attempt was matlo to ostiabMi'a'protectorate fcver tho independent .Slmto of, Abyssinia. 'i'iio Italians in this caso {irst camo oil tho scene of Aesab, a port near tho southern entrance to Ulo liod Sea, winch mi Italian company had acquired by purolrasa fnoiu the local SuK.iu. and sold'to tho Italian Government in 1682. After several missions to open up relations with Weuelek, Hum pretender to throne of I Abyrainia, Boilul .was oouupicd by liio 'Italians in 1885, and the port of w-ah was titkeu over from Jigypt shortly nltenvards. ~'l'hjs latter act was greatly resented'by tho Abyssinaatts, for by a' treaty coneludoil Willi a Hritit& and Egyptian mih-siou hi tiio previous year, freo taansit of coodn was to J)o allowed through Mris port. Matkens camo to a licad in January, 3887, tno Aby&siniiuis, in of areiusal frcnn General (jenc to withdraw /lis troops ironi Wua ami Tula, suiToumi* oil and massacred 400 Italian troops rit JJognli. liemi'orcomenfs were sent from Italy, and 111 April, 1888, tho Italian loran numbering over 20,000 men, camo into touch inl)i tlio Abyssinian army: but ncgctiafaons took tlio place of lijrlitlli". with the result that l>oth foi'cos iw fared, the Italians only leaving «omo MOO . inM?? n j\ s c ,"' colony wns now 5 isrVi ift 1 \katli of tho Emjxa-or John n 1889 Menelek proclaimed himself emperor, and received tho submission oif tromlar, Oojain, and several other provinces. As it happened, Count Antoirelli }>as with Menelek when ho claimed tho on r H',rf Ud f l n'r l)lls 7: ow ; ! , nded with 1»™ on l.«iialf of Italy a friendly troatv, to bo known hereafter-as tho famous VcciaJli < ' trauty. lii consequence of this tho Italians occupied Aanara, made friends with Maiigiwha, and received Has Makunnen. ii •?i" s -,! )ccam ® B, o r o and moro friendly with Majigasha and 'i'iirro, two princes who refused to acknowledge hiiu. » tlio approhcicions of Jlenclek incioasod; till at last, in February. 1893, ho wfl;oto denouncing the Ucoiafli troatr. 4 le 'Den-ishcs were threatening , Lrilroa, and after a scrioo of noHmVc in CfwrTV 8 '' 1 /- t ' lo H a ' ,ail °ortniajider, snnnnH , ?' ratl , <M ' 1 his forces unsupported too far to tho south. Menelek nos advancing \ntli a largo army in 11aof Mangaslin, and tho subsequent reverses at Ainba Alain (Decern. uw/'fci 8 ®! " 1 ad T ? r ?l»U« .(Jwwarf 23. forced the Italians to fall back 00 '" 0 -° f S thonsands wero mcannhilo arriving at llassowah, and in lebruary B.iratieri took the field at tho head of over 13,000 men. Menelek's ormv, amounting to about 1)0,000, had during this tmo advanced, and' was occupying a 6 r it,o S at ,- A - bte Gari *** ai i , attacked him on March 1, but tho difficulties of tiho county w-sro (treat and ouo 0 f t]j 6 four I(i |_ mi ll , "pffades Jiad pushed too far forward, i, "" S m,n,? do was , aUac kcd by ovenvhelniiu_ nunujcrs, and on tho remaining briBa««s advancing in supiwrt, thev wtM'B nn^fV'' 1 ' t0 pieMS n '- v tho I mantis of the onomy. • Tho Italians nearly -JOOO killed and wounded and 2000 prisoners, whilst (he AbyssinJans owned to a loss of over 3000. General Ualdiscera ■ with a large Ixidy of reinforce-' mcnts. to uve 1130 this .defeat, but Uw AbyMuians, desperately short of supplies • had already retired, and beyond tho urate' took' < nlneo > A dlfiTat 110 fu^her ojicratioiw ' ,P' n 9°' A peace was siracd at Ad<ii>: •Übnba m the following October, and negotiations oil the nuestion of frontiers «ero com in duced, } vlnch were only brought to a oonclusion in tlio autumn, 1900. '

thejsanusi. ; A POWERFUL MOSLEM ORDER. , HISTORICAL SKETCH.' There is a general consensus of opinion ambng people in a position ,to judge that tho action or inaction of, tho African MoJiammedans will have a vcirv important; bearmg on the war. • WiU^eiT^o T ■?lv aUOe i°fi l, l rkoy? 11 thc . lT <io It.ilj Hill probably have a big task in 'Hn c r ' A ccllt wWcgiaru stated that, tlio Sanusi (Seiniosi), a great Molianunodan brotherhood scattered all over Africa have promised to join iii the defence of Turkey. Br. Karl Kmnm, the wdJ-known Alncan missionary and explorer, has declared that Italy has put "and into a hornet's nest, and a limes correspondent:stales that events apparently shaping in a fashiou calculated to. stir .Is.iuu to its depths throughout Africa, and the may possibly bo momentous to the interests of tlio African Powers. Tho Sanusi,' to whom spccial l-efercneo has been made in connection, with the war, is described' by I)r. Margolionth, as a Moslem sect founded by tho Sheikh Sanusi, with wliflsc name the modem movement- called Panis'.umisni is often connected, though Moslem' authorities in Egypt deny tlio connection. Tho founder" of this community, one Mohammed Ibn Ali of Jliistaglmam, born about 179], is raid to linvo first organised it in Mcccah in tlio * year 1535, but to have been compelled to quit Arabia in 1843, when lie migrated (o tho rrjpolitaino. He had by this time acquired numerous adherents both in Asia and Africa, and received an ovation in Egypt on his way westwards, but derimed to moko Boulak his headquarters, although a zawiyab, or "hermitage," was offered him by the Pasha. In "1855 hu established himself at a point called Jaghbub, two or three days' journey from Siwa, and till his death in 1850 Was occupied in spreading his system and training. adherents. A ccording to I ho. French' historians of tho movement, bis -doctrine savoured strongly of WaJihabism in respect of it's pnritanisin—e.g., prohibition of tobacco and inufiic. Though calling himself a Malakite, he introduced certain alterations in tho prayer-ritual, with a rule that tlio rotary should bo carried in tiro hand, liot \rotn; and lik?. other founders of orders he prescribed a system of religious exorcises over and abovo the regular jierformaiice of war. sliip. Tlio praetieo followed- by himself, of receiving visitors-only at special hours of tlio day and after ~ appointment, is 'also mentioned by his enemies as an Innovation and contrary to the custom nf the Prophet. Tu tho main, however, his ide.i was to un'ito Moslems asainst Kurr. pean ii)ilueuco D fi-ojn which lio failed to dissociate that of the Turks. In tint ljcart of .Africa, then, he proposed to found, an Islamic state, whither all; Modems who wished to be quit of tlrese pernicious influenced could resort for, rr''.gc. After his death his: work was continned by his sons Sheikh al-Mahdi and Moiliammed Sharif, who, however. Hougnt fit to adopt a conciliatory nttituuo towards llio Turks. The former in the year IS!U or ISSIS Bcou-itly left Jaghbub, and established himself in Kafra. in tho Fastem Sahara. His death was announ,-.-cil in 1902, but this was denied by many of liis followers, c« the ground, it was thought, that a Mahdi docs not die. Tho supposition that the fximiH chief accumulating vast stores of arms and ammunition in his remote homo, and organising an army of Moslems throughout the world, is one that has ol'leti been circulated b,v alarmists who have found people milling to believe it. In IS9G a Freueh adventurer, the Marquis de Mows, stalled from Gabes with the view of traversing tho Sahara and reachin? Kafra, where he intended oft'ering himself as commander-in-chief to tlu> Mahdi, whose forces he would load in triumph through the Sudan and Egypt, driving Hie English into the ski; his small company was massacred by tlio Tafrarik at Beresof. and this dangor.to. the British occupation of Egypt was never realised, nor was it discovered what forces the Alaluli had under his command. Although the adherents of tho Samusi Mahdi' appear to 1m equal to defending themselves when attacked, (hew conduct has by no means been such •is to justil'v the contention of the alarmists; M. le Ohatelier is unable to connect them directly with the murders or French exploring parties in the Sahara; indeed ho gives the authorities of .laghbub cmb j> for saving one. In 18?5 the Sanusi Mahdi declined to help his rival of Khartum, that Mohammed Ahmad who •.prrev'l "fire and sword" in the Sudan, hust as tlioy i-olibsod assistance to other European n.'.itions against the Flench, so thev declined to help the Turks against the" Uus-ians. So far as t.hw have inter, f-i-ned in dispuics between tribes and rctfi'rivments, it .appears to have been with tho view of conciliation. When iu IsuS .hi English o ill cor published nu alarmist airliolo about the Sanusis in llio leadin"- English review,. the Egyptian nv fovnwv Savyid Ifcuslud Uxik (.he trouble If relate it iii liis own journal.